Prussian blue pigment: Bridging the historical palette to modern innovations
Abstract
This comprehensive review explores the multifaceted realm of Prussian Blue, a pigment with a rich history and varied applications tracing its origins, artistic applications, and chemical properties. Beginning with its origins as a laboratory creation, the paper traces its evolution into a revered pigment in the artistic world. The review explores the electronic transitions responsible for Prussian Blue's deep blue hue, shedding light on the intricate chemistry behind its vivid coloration. Additionally, the pivotal role of iron ions in determining the pigment's properties is examined in detail, highlighting the importance of precise composition in achieving desired color characteristics. Challenges in the reintegration of Prussian Blue into conservation and restoration projects are also explored, emphasizing the importance of careful preservation techniques to maintain the pigment's integrity and vibrancy. The review discusses the pigment's lightfastness and stability, addressing common issues such as fading and discoloration over time. A notable phenomenon of bronzing particularly associated with Chinese Blue has been characterized by the appearance of yellow or brown hues on the surface of the pigment, that has puzzled artists and conservators for centuries. The review delves into the underlying causes of bronzing, examining factors such as environmental conditions, pigment composition, and application techniques. The review explores the pigment's interactions with other blues and whites, offering insights into the spectrum of shades achievable through careful color mixing and layering techniques. The paper revisits the perennial debate surrounding the permanence of Prussian Blue. While some argue for its enduring stability and longevity, others point to instances of fading and discoloration observed in historical artworks. The manuscript navigates these conflicting perspectives, providing an understanding of Prussian Blue's permanence in different contexts. Prussian Blue stands as a testament to the symbiotic relationship between science and art, where its molecular structure and vibrant shades continue to inspire both chemists in laboratories and artists in studios. The Prussian Blue emerges as a captivating convergence of art and chemistry that has left an indelible mark on laboratory benches and artists' canvases. The unique interplay of ferric and ferrous ions, not only renders a deep blue color but also makes it sensitive to the variation of its environment. The interplay of its refractive index, bronzing tendencies, and tinting strength shapes its artistic applications, influencing the vibrant hues it contributes to diverse palettes. The permanence paradox surrounding Prussian Blue underscores the importance of precision in its preparation. As artists mix and blend, the pigment unveils its versatility, playing a pivotal role in color harmonies and shade variations. Beyond its role in art, Prussian Blue finds diverse applications in medicinal and industrial contexts. From its use as an antidote for heavy metal poisoning to its incorporation into high-performance materials such as batteries and sensors, Prussian Blue continues to demonstrate its versatility and utility in modern society. The review highlights these varied applications, showcasing Prussian Blue's enduring relevance and evolution beyond its historical roots.
Downloads
References
Abel, A. G. (1999). Pigments for paint. In R. Lambourne, & T. A. Strivens, (Eds.), Paint and surface coatings: theory and practice (Second Edition) (pp. 91–165). Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781855737006.91
Armanini, L., & Johnson, C. E. (1977). U.S. Patent No. 4,047,969. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Retrieved from https://patents.google.com/patent/US4545821
Ašpergěr, S. (1952). Kinetics of the decomposition of potassium ferrocyanide in ultra-violet light. Transactions of the Faraday Society, 48, 617–624. https://doi.org/10.1039/TF9524800617
Bersch, J. (1901). The Manufacture of Mineral and Lake Pigments: Containing Directions for the Manufacture of All Artificial Artists' and Painters' Colours, Enamel Colours, Soot and Metallic Pigments. London: Scott, Greenwood & Co.
Briggs, T. R. (1918). The tinting strength of pigments. The Journal of Physical Chemistry, 22(3), 216–230. https://doi.org/10.1021/j150183a004
Brown, D. B. (1968). Solid State Studies of Ferrous Chromicyanide and Other Prussian Blue Analogues. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/openview/df27ec408ab43508f18a124621ff589a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
Buser, H. J., Schwarzenbach, D., Petter, W., & Ludi, A. (1977). The crystal structure of Prussian blue: Fe4[Fe (CN)6]3 xH2O. Inorganic Chemistry, 16(11), 2704–2710. https://doi.org/10.1021/ic50177a008
Chadwick, B. M., & Sharpe, A. G. (1966). Transition metal cyanides and their complexes. Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry, 8, 83–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2792(08)60201-0
Coccato, A., Moens, L., & Vandenabeele, P. (2017). On the stability of mediaeval inorganic pigments: a literature review of the effect of climate, material selection, biological activity, analysis and conservation treatments. Heritage Science, 5, 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-017-0125-6
Coleby, L. J. M. (1939). A history of Prussian blue. Annals of Science, 4(2), 206–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/00033793900201211
Creagh, D., Lee, A., Otieno-Alego, V., & Kubik, M. (2009). Recent and future developments in the use of radiation for the study of objects of cultural heritage significance. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 78(6), 367–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2009.03.005
Day, P., Herren, F., Ludi, A., Güdel, H. U., Hulliger, F., & Givord, D. (1980). Valence Delocalization in Prussian Blue Fe4III[FeII(CN)6]3·xH2O, by Polarized Neutron Diffraction. Helvetica Chimica Acta, 63(1), 148–153. https://doi.org/10.1002/hlca.19800630115
De Rovira Sr., D. (2017). Dictionary of Flavors. Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Doerner, M. (1984). The materials of the artist and their use in painting, with notes on the techniques of the old masters. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
Duncan, J. F., & Wigley, P. W. R. (1963). 206. The electronic structure of the iron atoms in complex iron cyanides. Journal of the Chemical Society (Resumed), 1120–1125. https://doi.org/10.1039/JR9630001120
Eastaugh, N., Walsh, V., Chaplin, T., & Siddall, R. (2008). Pigment compendium: a dictionary of historical pigments. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080943596
Eckroth, D., Grayson, M., Kirk, R. E., & Othmer, D. F. (1978). Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical technology. NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Limited.
Estelrich, J., & Busquets, M. A. (2021). Prussian blue: A safe pigment with zeolitic-like activity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(2), 780. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22020780
Feeser, A., Goggin, M. D., & Tobin, B. F. (Eds.). (2012). The Materiality of Color: The Production, Circulation, and Application of Dyes and Pigments, 1400–1800. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
Fitzhugh, E. W., & Winter, J. (1985). Some technical notes on Whistler’s ‘Peacock Room’. Studies in Conservation, 30(4), 149–154. https://doi.org/10.1179/sic.1985.30.4.149
Fluck, E., Kerler, W., & Neuwirth, W. (1963). The Mössbauer Effect and its Significance in Chemistry. Angewandte Chemie, 2, 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.196302771
Friend, J. N. (1910). An introduction to the chemistry of paints. London, New York: Longmans, Green and Company. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/introductiontoch00frierich/page/2/mode/2up
Gajić-Kvaščev, M., Klisurić, O., Andrić, V., Ridolfi, S., Galečić, U., & Korolija Crkvenjakov, D. (2023). Multianalytical Study of the Blue Pigments Usage in Serbian Iconography at the Beginning of the 18th-Century. Coatings, 13(7), 1200. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13071200
Gervais, C., Languille, M. A., Reguer, S., Gillet, M., Pelletier, S., Garnier, C., ... & Bertrand, L. (2013). Why does Prussian blue fade? Understanding the role (s) of the substrate. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, 28(10), 1600–1609. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3JA50025J
Gettens, R. J., & Stout, G. L. (1966). Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopedia. New York: Dover Publications.
Gleason, T. G., & Walker, J. C. (1969). Mössbauer-Effect Study of the Ferroelectric Transitions in Potassium Ferrocyanide Trihydrate and Ferric Ammonium Sulfate Dodecahydrate. Physical Review, 188(2), 893‒898. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.188.893
Goldanskii, V. I. (1967). Chemical Gamma‐Resonance Spectroscopy. Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English, 6(10), 830–843. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.196708301
Gottsegen, M. D. (2006). The Painter's Handbook: A Complete Reference. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications.
Harley, R. D. (1982). [Review of Portrait Painting in England: Studies in the Technical Literature before 1700, by M. K. Talley]. Studies in Conservation, 27(3), 137–139. https://doi.org/10.2307/1506149
Haskovic, A., & Ibragic, S. (2022). Use of analytical methods in revealing the techniques of Ottoman calligraphers: an illuminated manuscript from the eighteenth century. Studies in Conservation, 67(5), 313–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2021.1885785
Herren, F., Fischer, P., Ludi, A., & Hälg, W. (1980). Neutron diffraction study of Prussian Blue, Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 xH2O. Location of water molecules and long-range magnetic order. Inorganic Chemistry, 19(4), 956–959. https://doi.org/10.1021/ic50206a032
Holtzman, H. (1945). Alkali Resistance of the Iron Blues. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, 37(9), 855–861. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie50429a019
Hughes, R., & Rowe, M. (1983). The Coloring, Bronzing and Patination of Metals. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Retrieved from https://archive.org/search?query=external-identifier%3A%22urn%3Aoclc%3Arecord%3A1029267843%22
Hurst, G. H. (1892). Silk dyeing, printing, and finishing. London: George Bell and Sons.
Itaya, K., Uchida, I., & Neff, V. D. (1986). Electrochemistry of polynuclear transition metal cyanides: Prussian blue and its analogues. Accounts of Chemical Research, 19(6), 162–168. https://doi.org/10.1021/ar00126a001
Keggin, J. F., & Miles, F. D. (1936). Structures and formulae of the Prussian blues and related compounds. Nature, 137(3466), 577–578. https://doi.org/10.1038/137577a0
Kemp Maer Jr., Beasley, M. L., Collins, R. L., & Milligan, W. O. (1968). Structure of the titanium-iron cyanide complexes. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 90(12), 3201–3208. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01014a040
Kirby, J., & Saunders, D. (2004). Fading and colour change of Prussian blue: methods of manufacture and the influence of extenders. National Gallery Technical Bulletin, 25, 73–99. Retrieved from https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/media/15510/kirby_saunders2004.pdf
Kraft, A. (2009). On two letters from Caspar Neumann to John Woodward revealing the secret method for preparation of Prussian blue. Bulletin for the History of Chemistry, 34(2), 134–140. Retrieved from https://europepmc.org/article/med/21443028
Kraft, A. (2021). Some considerations on the structure, composition, and properties of Prussian blue: A contribution to the current discussion. Ionics, 27(6), 2289–2305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-021-04013-0
Kühn, H. (1986). Zinc White. In R. L. Feller (Ed.), Artists Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 1, (pp. 169‒186). London: Archetype Publications. Retrieved from https://www.nga.gov/content/dam/ngaweb/research/publications/pdfs/artists-pigments-vol1.pdf
Kühn, H., & Curran, M. E. (1986). In R. L. Feller (Ed.), Artists Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 1, (pp. 187‒218). London: Archetype Publications. Retrieved from https://www.nga.gov/content/dam/ngaweb/research/publications/pdfs/artists-pigments-vol1.pdf
Legnetti, P. A. (27 February 1984). Iron Blue Pigments (Technical Notes provided by Ciba-Geigy).
Linton, W. (1852). Ancient and Modern Colours from the Earliest Periods to the Present Time: With Their Chemical and Artistical Properties. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longman. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.ua/books?hl=uk&lr=&id=UCZkAAAAcAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&ots=a5pngWLyyT&sig=wbiBkadITPenuyIAV0_6fuBYOUg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
Ludi, A. (1981). Prussian blue, an inorganic evergreen. Journal of Chemical Education, 58(12), 1013. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed058p1013
Mactaggart, P., & Mactaggart, A. (1998). A Pigment Microspopist's Notebook. Verlag nicht ermittelbar. Publisher: Mactaggart.
Mayer, R. (1991). The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques. New York, USA: Viking Adult.
McCrone, W. C. (1988). The Vinland Map. Analytical Chemistry, 60(10), 1009–1018. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac00161a013
Mortelmans, K., & Zeiger, E. (2000). The Ames Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity assay. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 455(1–2), 29–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0027-5107(00)00064-6
Parnell, E. A. (1846). A Practical Treatise on Dyeing and Calico-printing: Including the Latest Inventions and Improvements; Also a Description of the Origin, Manufacture, Uses, and Chemical Properties of the Various... Substances Employed in These Arts. With an Appendix. New York, USA: Harper & Brothers.
Peric, B. (2008). Optical coherence tomography applied to investigations of optical properties of paintings (Master’s thesis). Nottingham Trent University. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30624118.pdf
Pfaff, G. (2008). Special effect pigments: Technical basics and applications. Hannover: Vincentz Network GmbH & Co KG.
Plesters, J. (1956). Cross-sections and chemical analysis of paint samples. Studies in Conservation, 2(3), 110157. https://doi.org/10.1179/sic.1956.015
Riffault, M. M. (2023). A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting (Reprint of the original, first published in 1874). Frankfurt: BoD–Books on Demand.
Robin, M. B. (1962). The color and electronic configurations of Prussian blue. Inorganic Chemistry, 1(2), 337–342. https://doi.org/10.1021/ic50002a028
Rogge, C. E., & Bomford, Z. V. (2022). Franz Kline: The Artist's Materials. Los Angeles :Getty Publications.
Roy, A. (2007). Cobalt Blue. In B. H. Berrie (Ed.), Artists’ Pigments: A handbook of their history and characteristics (Vol. 4, pp. 183–185). Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art.
Samain, L., Silversmit, G., Sanyova, J., Vekemans, B., Salomon, H., Gilbert, B., ... & Strivay, D. (2011). Fading of modern Prussian blue pigments in linseed oil medium. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, 26(5), 930–941. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0ja00234h
Schilling, M. R. (2005). Paint media analysis. In Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) (pp. 186–205). Washington DC: National Academies Press.
Scholz, F., Schröder, U., Gulaboski, R., & Doménech-Carbó, A. (2005). Electrochemistry of immobilized particles and droplets. Berlin: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10843-8
Šimonović, I., Kargačin, B., & Kostial, K. (1986). The effect of composite oral treatment for internal contamination with several radionuclides on 131I thyroid uptake in humans. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 6(2), 109–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/jat.2550060208
Sistino, J. A. (1973). Ferriferrocyanide pigments: Iron blue. Pigment Handbook, 1 (pp. 401–407). New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Stewart-Remington, J., & Francis, W. (1954). Pigments: their manufacture, properties and use. London: Leonard Hill.
Stillman, T. B. (1905). Engineering Chemistry: A Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis (3th Edition). New York: Chemical Publishing Company.
Taft, W. S., Mayer, J. W., & Kuniholm, P. I. (2000). The science of paintings. New York: Springer.
Taylor, J. C. (1957). William Page: The American Titian. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Townsend, J. H. (1993). The materials of J. M. W. Turner: pigments. Studies in Conservation, 38(4), 231–254. https://doi.org/10.1179/sic.1993.38.4.231
Welsh, F.S., 1988. Particle characteristics of Prussian blue in an historical oil paint. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, 27(2), 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1179/019713688806046292
Wertheim, G. K., & Rosencwaig, A. (1971). Characterization of inequivalent iron sites in Prussian Blue by photoelectron spectroscopy. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 54(7), 3235–3237. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1675321
Wild, A. M. de. (1929). The scientific examination of pictures; an investigation of the pigments used by the Dutch and Flemish masters from the brothers Van Eyck to the middle of the 19th century. London: G. Bell & Sons, Ltd.
Wilde, R. E., Ghosh, S. N., & Marshall, B. J. (1970). Prussian blues. Inorganic Chemistry, 9(11), 2512–2516. https://doi.org/10.1021/ic50093a027
Wilkins, T. (1998). Thomas Moran: artist of the mountains. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
Williamson, A. W. (1845). CLXV. On the blue compounds of cyanogen and iron. In Memoirs and Proceedings of the Chemical Society (Vol. 3, pp. 125–140). London: Royal Society of Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1039/MP8450300125
Woodward, J. (1724). Praeparatio Caerulei Prussiaci Ex Germania Missa ad Johannem Woodward, MD Prof. Med. Gresh. RSS. Philosophical Transactions (1683–1775), 33, 15–17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/103733
Zhang, L. L., Chen, Z. Y., Fu, X. Y., Yan, B., Tao, H. C., & Yang, X. L. (2022). Effect of Zn-substitution induced structural regulation on sodium storage performance of Fe-based Prussian blue. Chemical Engineering Journal, 433(3), 133739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.133739
Abstract views: 1827 PDF Downloads: 634
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
License terms: authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License International CC-BY that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
The scanned copy of the "Agreement” on the authors" copyright transfer on the manuscript publication and the subsequent posting of the paper on the Internet (in * .pdf or * .jpg format) is to be attached to the manuscript of the paper.
By this agreement the author certifies that the submitted material:
- does not infringe the copyright of other persons or organizations;
- was not previously published in other publishing houses and has not been submitted for publication in other editions.
The author passes the editorial board of the journal "History of science and technology" rights to:
- publication of the article in Ukrainian (English and Russian) language and distribution of its printed copy;
- translation of the article into English language (for articles in Ukrainian and Russian language) and distribution of its translated printed copy;
- distribution of the article electronic copy, as well as electronic copy of the article English translation (for articles in Ukrainian and Russian), via any electronic means (placing on the official web-site of the journal, electronic databases, repositories, etc.) printed copy of the translation.
The author reserves the right without the consent of the editorial board and founders:
- Use the materials of the article in whole or in part for educational purposes.
- Use the materials of the article in whole or in part to write their own dissertations.
- Use the materials of the article for the preparation of abstracts, conference reports, as well as oral presentations.
- Place electronic copies of the article (including the final electronic copy downloaded from the official web-site of the journal) to:
- personal web-resources of all authors (web-sites, web-pages, blogs, etc.);
- web-resources of institutions where authors work (including electronic institutional repositories);
- non-commercial web-resources of open access (for example, arXiv.org).
In all cases, the availability of a bibliographic link to an article or hyperlink to its electronic copy on the official website of the journal is compulsory.
